Excitement at the arrival of a "Poet-Ambassador" in Japan

In January 1921, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs was notified that a new French ambassador would be appointed to Japan. The new ambassador's name was Paul Claudel (1868-1955). Claudel joined the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1890 and spent a long period of time in Qing China from 1895 to 1909, temporarily returning to France several times. Aside from his duties as a diplomat, he was also a writer of poetry and plays. However, until the news of his appointment to Japan spread, Claudel's name was hardly known in Japan--much less the fact that he was involved in literature. Bin Ueda (1874-1916), who authored the monumental collection of translated poems Kaichoon, featured Claudel in his essays such as "Self-talk and Dialogue," and "Latest Trends in Literature." Ueda also translated several of Claudel's poems. However, Claudel's name was rarely mentioned in books or magazines published in Japan before 1921.^[1]

At that time, Japan-France relations were approaching a turning point. Having fought in World War I under the Quadruple Entente of Japan, France, Britain, and Russia, Japan experienced a large export surplus and assumed a large portion of the public debt of the other three countries. Therefore, from the perspective of France, Japan was both a creditor nation and an important ally in the Asia-Pacific region.^[2] Claudel was an expert on Asia and had a long career working in China. Under those circumstances, the appointment of Claudel as ambassador to Japan was a trump card from the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.^[3]

However, when news of Claudel's appointment was reported in Japan, the reaction was somewhat different from what the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs had anticipated. Surprisingly, the Japanese showed greater interest in Claudel's record as a renowned writer than in his ability as a diplomat.

Japanese newspaper reports from that time made statements such as the following: "the appointment of Paul Claudel as the new Ambassador to Japan will be of great significance to the Japanese literary world"^[4] and "Claudel is better known as a literary figure than as a diplomat, so his arrival in Tokyo will be more of a literary stimulus than a welcome event for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs."^[5] These reactions eventually led to the nickname "Poet-Ambassador," which is what everyone in Japan called Claudel. After his arrival in Japan, Claudel's actions and statements were reported in Japanese newspapers on a nearly daily basis, and they were always accompanied by the nickname "Poet-Ambassador." There are probably few foreign ambassadors who have received such intense attention.

Intellectuals fascinated by the "poet-ambassador"

When news of Claudel's upcoming appointment to Japan spread, Tokyo's pro-French intellectuals began preparing to welcome him. Records show that in March, an event called the Society of Fervid French Literature Readers was held at France Shoin, a foreign-language bookstore in Kanda-Ogawamachi. The event was described as a gathering of "people who enjoy French literature, who will meet and spend an evening chatting in the cheerful atmosphere that is unique to French literature."^[6] However, it is believed that the event was actually a meeting to welcome Claudel. Indeed, at almost the same time, a group called the France Club was also formed at France Shoin, and it was reported that the club decided to plan an artistic welcome party for the newly appointed French Ambassador, Mr. Paul Claudel.^[7] The central figure of the society was Albert Maybon (1878-1940), the proprietor of France Shoin, and its members included French literature scholar Takamatsu Yoshie (1880-1940), political scientist Kinzo Gorai (1875-1944), and French literature scholar and social activist Omi Komaki (1894-1978). All of these individuals would later be in direct contact with Claudel.

On November 19, 1921, the ship carrying the "Poet-Ambassador" arrived at Yokohama Port, and Claudel set foot on Japanese soil. Articles introducing Claudel were published in Japanese magazines and newspapers by Maybon, Yoshie, and other members of the France Club.^[8] The following year, on January 15, 1922, a grand welcome party for Claudel was held at the restaurant Ueno Seiyoken. In addition to Yoshie's lectures and readings of Claudel's works, students from Tokyo Gaikokugo Gakko (now Tokyo University of Foreign Studies) performed Claudel's play La Nuit de Noël de 1914 in French. Claudel responded to this warm welcome and passion for French literature by giving a lecture titled "French Literature."

Exchange with young Japanese poets

The enthusiasm for Claudel extended beyond pro-French intellectuals. A month before Claudel arrived in Japan, a poetry magazine was launched. The magazine was named Nihon Shijin, and was published by the major publishing house Shinchosha. 1917 saw the formation of Shiwakai, which was the largest association of poets in the Taisho Period. However, in March 1921, major poets such as Hakushu Kitahara and Rofu Miki left Shiwakai in opposition to the colloquial free verse that was becoming mainstream at the time. The remaining young poets launched Nihon Shijin as the journal of the new Shiwakai. The journal was published for a total of 59 issues by the time it ended in November 1926.^[9] The journal began with an introductory article that was contributed by Omi Komaki shortly after Claudel's arrival in Japan^[10]. From that point forward, Nihon Shijin was actively involved with Poet-Ambassador; for example, the journal included a partial translation of Claudel's collection of prose poems Connaissance de l'Est, as well as the manuscript of a lecture given by Claudel on December 2, 1922 on writer Charles-Louis Philippe. The May 1923 issue of Nihon Shijin was a very substantial special issue titled The Paul Claudel Special Issue. The opening page featured the "Greetings to Nihon Shijin" that Paul Claudel penned specifically for the journal. The issue also featured translations of Claudel's works, critiques, and even the first Japanese chronology of Claudel's life. At the time, Nihon Shijin was edited by young, up-and-coming poets such as Kojiro Fukushi (1889-1946), Masao Fukuda (1893-1952), Seigo Shiratori (1890-1973), and Soji Momota (1893-1955).

Respect for Claudel was also evident in other poetry magazines besides Nihon Shijin. One example was Shisei, which was launched by Genbunsya at the same time as Nihon Shijin. Shisei was a relatively short-lived poetry magazine and was discontinued in September 1923 after a total of 24 issues. However, in the April 1923 issue, Claudel contributed a message titled "To Shisei and Japanese Poets." The issue also contained a translation of a poem by Claudel. The editor of Shisei was the young poet Jiro Daito (1895-1926). Daito and Momota (editor of Nihon Shijin) both met Claudel in person.^[11] Furthermore, Tetsunosuke Maeda (1896-1977), who was a member of Shiwakai but later went independent to start the self-published journal Shiyo, ran a small special feature on Claudel in Shiyo when Claudel left Japan in 1927. It was a farewell to the "Poet-Ambassador.^[12]

Japan as a fountain of creativity

The basis for this warm welcome was not only the friendly atmosphere between Japan and France at that time. Rather, in a global situation in which Japan had risen after World War I to become one of the top five powers in terms of national strength, but was treated as a second-rate country politically and culturally, there were probably high expectations that Claudel would become an ambassador for Japanese literature and art in every sense.^[13] Regardless of whether or not Claudel truly understood Japanese culture, it is a fact that he showed more than an average interest in Japan, especially in Japanese literature and art. While many of Claudel's statements about Japan, such as those in his diplomatic documents and speeches, were clearly made in the capacity of ambassador, other statements were purely based on his interests as a poet.

However, the aspects of Japanese literary culture that Claudel did notice and enjoy differed from the latest trends of the Taisho Period. For example, although Kaoru Osanai (1881-1928) founded the Tsukiji Little Theater in 1924 and new forms of theater boomed in Japan, Claudel became familiar with traditional Japanese theater such as noh, bunraku, and kabuki. As for poetry, while poets affiliated with the aforementioned Nihon Shijin and Shisei practiced colloquial verse, the "Poet-Ambassador" Claudel was most interested in haikai (haiku), a fixed form of Japanese poetry.^[14] This kind of anachronism that arises when accepting a different culture is a fairly commonplace phenomenon. Even so, in Claudel's case, this sensibility bore fruit in the form of literary works with unique form and content that were only made possible by his experiences in Japan, such as the play La Femme et son Ombre, which was Claudel's take on noh and was performed at the Hagoromo-kai theatrical society organized by Nakamura Fukusuke V, Cent Phrases pour Eventails, which was a collection of short poems inspired by haikai, and many other works.

Literature as a vehicle of exchange between France and Japan

In the last few years of the Taisho Period, Japanese people were fascinated by the "Poet-Ambassador" from France. For his part, Claudel responded by writing works which examined Japan from his own viewpoint. The existence of such a happy relationship, even for a short period of time, is worthy of special mention in the history of French-Japanese exchange. This relationship was symbolized by the collection of poems Sainte Geneviève published by Shinchosha in February 1923. This collection was made possible through the earnest wishes of Claudel. The collection is written on a single sheet of paper folded like a sutra. On the front side is a long poem on St. Genevieve of the Christian faith. The back side features the short poem La Muraille Intérieure de Tokyo which was inspired by Claudel's daily routine of strolling around the moat of the Imperial Palace. This poem was printed with an illustration by Japanese painter Keisen Tomita (1879-1936). In other words, this book contains French poetry on the front and Japanese poetry on the back. Would it be inferring too much to surmise that Claudel was attempting to embody literary exchange between Japan and France through his poetry?

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[1] In regard to how Claudel was received in the first half of the Taisho Period by Bin Ueda and other Japanese literary figures, see my article Reception of Paul Claudel in the First Half of the Taisho Period, Research in French Studies, No. 50, 2024, pp. 31-47.
[2] Shinonaga, N., Ambassador Paul Claudel and French Policy Toward Japan (1), Economic Journal, No. 94, 2010, pp. 106-108.
[3] Shinonaga, N., Ambassador Paul Claudel and French Policy Toward Japan (2), Economic Journal, No. 95, 2010, p. 103.
[4] The Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, July 7, 1921.
[5] The Yomiuri Shimbun, November 3, 1921.
[6] The Yomiuri Shimbun, March 6, 1921.
[7] The Yomiuri Shimbun, March 10, 1921. For more information on the France Club, see Kobayashi, S., The History of the France Club, Annuaire de Littérature Comparée, No. 47, 2011, pp. 76-96.
[8] A. Maybon (translated by Yoshie, T.), Welcoming Ambassador Claudel as a Man of Letters (the Yomiuri Shimbun, December 20, 1921). Yoshie, T., Paul Claudel, Kaizo Magazine, Vol. 3, No. 11, 1921, pp. 94-103.
[9] For more information about this magazine, see Nihon Shijin and Taisho Poetry: The Birth of the Colloquial Community, edited by Katsuhara, H., Shinwasha, 2006.
[10] Komaki, O., Impressions of Paul Claudel, Nihon Shijin, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1921, pp. 71-75.
[11] On February 18, 1923, a celebration for the publication of a collection of Claudel's poems, Sainte Geneviève, was held at the Imperial Hotel.
[12] See my article Paul Claudel and the Poetry Magazine Shiyo, Research in French Studies, No. 48, 2022, pp. 18-36.
[13] Ode, A., Claudel in the News, Claudel au JAPON 18981921-1927, supervised by Chujo, S. and edited by Ode, A., Shinonaga, N., and Negishi, T., Kress Publishing, 2010, p. 435.
[14] See my article Haikai as a Source of Short Poetry: Paul Claudel's Reception of Haikai, Études de langue et littérature françaises, No. 124, 2024, pp. 75-91.

Ryo Gakutani／Associate Professor, Faculty of Letters, Chuo University
Areas of Specialization: Modern French Literature, History of French-Japanese Relations, and Comparative Literature

Ryo Gakutani was born in 1987. In 2010, he graduated from the Department of Humanities and Social Science, Faculty of Letters, Keio University, with a major in French literature. In 2012, he completed the Master’s Program in the Department of Area Studies of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, the University of Tokyo. In 2019, he completed the Doctoral Program without obtaining a doctoral degree in the Department of Area Studies of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, the University of Tokyo. While enrolled at the University of Tokyo, he studied abroad at the Graduate School of French and Comparative Literature, Sorbonne University (formerly known as Paris IV), where he obtained a master’s degree and a doctoral degree. He holds a Ph.D. in French literature and French civilization. He served as a Research Fellow for Young Scientists (Postdoctoral) of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, and then a lecturer and Associate Professor in the Faculty of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Chukyo University before assuming his current position in 2024.

His areas of specialization are modern French literature, history of French-Japanese relations, and comparative literature.

His current research themes include using the perspectives of diplomacy, religion, and literature to position Paul Claudel’s relationship with Japan during his time as the French ambassador to Japan, and clarifying how French poetry was received in Japan during the Taisho Period. He is also interested in the history of exchange among Japan, France, and China during the Shanghai French Concession.

His major publications (co-authored) include Claudel et son temps (edited by Atsushi Ode, Suiseisha, 2023) and Introduction à la Concession française de Shanghai (edited by Yasuko Enomoto, Yoriko Morimoto, and Shiori Fujino, Bensei Shuppan, 2023). His major translated works (co-translated) include Paul Claudel (originally written by Anne Ubersfeld, Suiseisha, 2023; translation supervised by Shinobu Chujo) and more.

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