Introduction

It was only in recent years that the preservation and development of Japan's borderlands was firmly positioned as a national maritime strategy; specifically, in the Cabinet decision on the First Basic Plan on Ocean Policy in Japan in 2008 and the Act on Special Measures for the Conservation of Populated Remote Territorial Island Areas and Local Communities of Specified Populated Remote Territorial Island Areas promulgated in 2017. My area of expertise is border studies, which deals with boundaries, including national borders, from multiple perspectives. Border studies is based on the idea that territorial and border policies need to be analyzed not only from the perspective of the central government, but also with the actual conditions of borderlands that are at the forefront of territorial and border issues. In order to heal the "disease of territory" caused by power politics between nations, it is necessary to understand territorial and border issues from a broader perspective; that is, to ascertain the true national interests of the countries involved.^[1] If we recognize borderlands as inhabited areas which possess spatial expansion, and view them as areas of exchange and opportunity connecting to the outside world beyond borders, then we can position borderlands as independent strategic actors, rather than as dependent variables in relations among nations.

1. Japan's territorial and border issues--the pitfalls of the "inherent territory"discourse^[2]

Japan's land area is approximately 380,000 square kilometers, which ranks 62^nd in the world. But when its territorial waters and exclusive economic zones (EEZs) are included, the total area of Japan is approximately 4.47 million square kilometers. This is approximately 12 times the size of the country's land area, ranking 6^th in the world after the United States, Australia, Indonesia, New Zealand, and Canada. Japan is composed of 14,125 islands. Excluding Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Okinawa Main Island, 14,120 islands are classified as remote islands (Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, as of February 28, 2023).^[3] Due to their location and other factors, remote islands play an important role in preserving Japan's EEZs, managing and utilizing marine resources, preserving the natural environment, and ensuring a stable supply of food. The data discussed above reveals the geographical nature of Japan, which is not only a maritime nation, but also an island nation.

Photograph 1. Hateruma Island (Taketomi Town, Yaeyama District, Okinawa Prefecture),
the southernmost inhabited remote island of Japan

(Photographed by author)

Photograph 2: Yonaguni Island (Yonaguni Town, Yaeyama District, Okinawa Prefecture),
the westernmost point of Japan

(Photographed by author)

It is known throughout the international community that Japan has territorial and border issues with Russia in regard to the Northern Territories, South Korea in regard to Takeshima, and China／Taiwan in regard to the Senkaku Islands (see Figure 1). The Japanese government takes the position that each of these islands is Japan's "inherent territory" both historically and under international law. In particular, it is the view of the Japanese government that there is no territorial or border issue regarding the Senkaku Islands, which Japan has effectively controlled and nationalized. However, the Senkaku Islands are included in a map of territorial disputes over islands around the world (see Figure 2) created by Martin Pratt, a leading researcher at IBRU (International Boundaries Research Unit, Durham University, UK), a world-renowned research institute on borders and border demarcation. In the map, number 21 is the Senkaku Islands, and their Chinese name "Diaoyu Islands" is also listed.^[4] As long as China and Taiwan continue to claim the Senkaku Islands as their territory, there is no legally recognized line.

Figure 1: Situation of disputed Japanese territory

Source: Homepage of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
(https://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/territory/)

Figure 2: Territorial disputes of islands throughout the world

Source: Martin Pratt, "The Scholar-Practitioner Interface in Boundary Studies,"
Eurasia Border Review, Volume 1, No. 1, 2010, p. 35.

The concept of "inherent territory" as claimed by the Japanese government emphasizes that the "land has never been the territory of a foreign country and continues to be a Japanese territory.^[5] Essentially, inherent territory is said to be an "untranslatable term" that does not exist in other countries. Furthermore, the term could be considered "self-negating" for Western countries that have historically redrawn their borders many times, and for the United States and Russia, which have sought to expand their territories by seizing the land of indigenous peoples.^[6] The same applies in the historical context of Japan. Can Hokkaido be called Japan's "inherent territory" while ignoring the existence of the indigenous Ainu people? Also, considering the existence of the unique Ryukyu Dynasty, are the Senkaku Islands the inherent territory of the nation of Japan? Furthermore, Ishigaki Island and Yonaguni Island, both of which are in the Yaeyama Islands, were not even part of the Ryukyu Dynasty. The Ryukyu Dynasty has a history of being ruled by the Satsuma Domain. However, the Ryukyu Dynasty transferred the burden of rule and exploitation by the Satsuma Domain to the people of the Miyako Islands and Yaeyama Islands, subjecting the residents of those islands to a harsh tax system known as the poll tax.^[7] Okinawa is often spoken of as a place of suffering and discrimination. However, we must also consider an even harsher history that the remote islands outside of the Ryukyu Dynasty had experienced.

Considering the long history behind the formation of the Japanese nation, the continued line of thinking that understands "territory" within the framework of the modern nation-state since the Meiji era is also a pitfall of the "inherent territory" discourse. Archaeologist Tsuyoshi Fujimoto has broadly divided the cultures of the Japanese archipelago into three zones: "northern culture," "central culture," and "southern culture" (the border areas are "blurred zones"). The history of Japan tells a story in which the nation was formed when the Yamato central culture incorporated the northern culture and the southern culture. As a result, this history attributes Japan's "inherent nature" to Yamato while ignoring other regions and cultures.^[8]

From this perspective, the more one clings to the discourse of "inherent territory," the more one falls into self-contradiction, and the more difficult it becomes to find a starting point for diplomatic negotiations at any level between the disputing countries. The same can be said for countries with which Japan has disputes. It must be noted that a stance of populism which eschews calm discussion is embodied by foreign politicians who lump Japan's history of aggression together with territorial and border issues and loudly stir up nationalism on the disputed areas, as well as by the citizens who respond to such claims.

2. Fishing industry and borders: Invisible borders

A notable feature of the territorial and border issues facing Japan is that invisible borders are drawn at sea. Compared to land borders, the invisibility of maritime borders poses factors that make it difficult to resolve maritime disputes.^[9] First, although there are now many scenes in which issues arising at maritime borders are shown in the media, these tend to be viewed as disputes that take place far from the eyes of the general public, except for residents and fishermen in borderlands. Secondly, because resources are spread widely beneath the seafloor, many countries become involved in disputes and the situation becomes even more complicated. Hence, the existence of invisible maritime borders transforms visible islands such as Takeshima and the Senkaku Islands into symbols of nationalism on maps.

Stalemates in territorial and border disputes have a wide range of impacts, including issues surrounding the development of the continental shelf and the military use of the EEZs. A particularly notable issue is Japan's fishing industry.^[10] Japan's vast ocean borders have become "problematic waters" where conflicts over island ownership have become evident. Fishermen who must coexist with the sea have always been at the mercy of conflicts between nations arguing over sovereignty. Although the Japanese government considers the Northern Territories to be a Japanese territory, fishing for Okhotsk Atka mackerel and kelp is not possible there unless a cooperation fee is paid to Russia as based on the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security. In the case of Takeshima, a provisional waterway has been established near the median line between Japan and South Korea, but South Korean fishing boats continue to fish in waters closer to Honshu than Takeshima. Such conditions may be natural in a sense when considering that the Northern Territories and Takeshima are effectively under the control of Russia and South Korea, respectively. However, even in the case of the Senkaku Islands, which are effectively under the control of Japan, Taiwanese fishing boats are operating off the coast of the Sakishima Islands, which are part of Japan's EEZs. At the same time that territorial and border disputes between nations become increasingly entrenched, Japan's fishing industry is declining steadily. There is a need for an approach that transcends national borders and works with fishermen to overcome this difficult situation.^[11]

3. Networks connecting borderlands: A "bottom-up" border approach

Until now, a top-down approach has been pushed to the forefront for the management of territory and borders. This top-down approach holds that border management is the sole prerogative of the central government at the macro level. However, in recent years, a bottom-up approach has been gaining momentum. In the bottom-up approach, local government officials in borderlands on the edges of Japan (including remote islands) and researchers work together to reflect the opinions of local residents in the border policies of the central government.^[12] In 2011, the Japan International Border Studies Network (JIBSN) was established as a forum for exchanging ideas between practitioners and researchers in borderlands.^[13] This research network uses multiple perspectives to examine issues facing the borderlands of Japan, a maritime nation, and to make policy recommendations. Activities of the JIBSN include (1) planning, implementing, and supporting surveys and research on borderlands both in Japan and overseas, (2) supporting exchanges, collaboration, and information dissemination among local governments in borderlands, (3) mutually utilizing, sharing, and publishing the results of borderland research, (4) providing policy recommendations that contribute to the independence and revitalization of borderlands, and (5) collaborating and cooperating for human resource development. Through these activities, the JIBSN works to stabilize and promote Japan's borderlands. In 2014, the Japan Center for Border Studies (JCBS) was established. The main feature of the center is based on the participation of not only local government officials and researchers, but also the general public.^[14] In 2017, from the perspective of making borders tourism resources, the Japan Border Tourism Association (JBTA) was established with the aim of popularizing, establishing, and expanding demand for border tourism, which involves travel to borderlands and neighboring countries.^[15] Through close collaboration with private companies such as tourism operators and local governments, the JBTA contributes to regional revitalization in borderlands by promoting economic growth, reviving tourism, and introducing traditional culture.

Figure 3: Networks connecting borderlands

Source: Created by the author

National sovereignty is constantly influenced by globalization and changes in the security environment. If we were to base our thinking on fixed territories and borders within a certain domain, it would be difficult to explain the changing nature of national sovereignty today. In light of this, we need a perspective for understanding territorial and border issues that is conscious of the perspective of borderlands as inhabited areas. At the same time, we must also account for the existence of actors other than nations involved in border policies (such as local governments, research and educational institutions, companies, and local media).

Conclusion

Territorial and border issues, which often focus on conflicts between nations over national interests, are a prime example of the so-called classical geopolitics which has recently become popular. However, border studies that emphasizes borderlands as inhabited areas and includes actors and scales other than nation states in their analytical scope asserts that achieving stability and peace in borderlands while overcoming conflict and friction could lead to prosperity for Japan as a whole. Generally, there is a tendency to think of borderlands as geographical frontiers, but borderlands can also be seen as frontier spaces that constantly generate new phenomena and relationships through contact and border crossings that transcend space. By shifting the representation of borderlands from a negative image of being obsessed with the "disease of territory" to a positive image that holds the potential for new cooperation, it becomes possible to break down the fixed concept of borderlands as geographical frontiers. Instead, we can position borderlands as strategic actors. As discussed at the beginning of this article, it is important to have a flexible yet firm attitude in considering the true nature of national interests, while at the same time taking into account the embodiment of people living in borderlands. My current research goal is to cooperate with my fellow researchers in order to create an academic platform for such multifaceted consideration.

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[1] Iwashita, A. (ed.), Ryodo to yu yamai- Kokkyo nashonarizm heno shohosen (The Disease of Territory: A Prescription for Border Nationalism,) Hokkaido University Press, 2014.
[2] The description given here is based on the following: Kawakubo, F., "Territorial and Border Issues," in New Edition of International Relations, Yamada, A. et al. (eds.), Yushindo Kobunsha, scheduled for publishing in 2025.
[3] Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, Number of Islands in Japan, February 28, 2023.
(https://www.gsi.go.jp/kihonjohochousa/islands_index.html)
[4] Martin Pratt The Scholar-Practitioner Interface in Boundary Studies, Eurasia Border Review, Volume 1, No. 1, 2010, p. 35.
[5] Wada, H., Ryodo mondai wo do kaiketusuruka - Tairitsu kara taiwahe (How to Resolve Territorial Issues--From Conflict to Dialogue), Heibonsha, 2012, p. 24.
[6] Ibid., pp. 28-35.
[7] Tanigawa, K. Umoreta Nihon chizu (The Buried Map of Japan), Kodansha, 2021, p. 32.
[8] Fujimoto, T., Nihon retto no mittsu no bunka- Kitano bunka, Nakano bunka, Minamino bunka (The Three Cultures of the Japanese Archipelago--Northern Culture, Central Culture, and Southern Culture), Doseisha, 2009.
[9] Iwashita, A., "Henkyo karano Toikake (Questions from the Periphery)," in Nihon no Kokkyo／ Ikani kono " jyubaku" wo tokuka (How to Break the Spell of Japan's Borders) (written and edited by Iwashita, A.), Hokkaido University Press, 2010, pp. 1-2.
[10] For more details, see Hamada, T. and Sasaki, T., Gyogyo to Kokkyo (Fishing Industry and Borders), Misuzu Shobo, 2020.
[11] Ibid., pp. 5-6.
[12] Kawakubo, F., "Networks Connecting Borderlands," Chuo Gakuin University Research Institute of Social System Newsletter, No. 26, 2024. The author is conducting research on the current situation and issues of borderlands in Japan through the project research (2023-2025 academic years) "Borderlands in Crisis: Case Studies of Wakkanai, Nemuro, and the Yaeyama Islands" at the Research Institute of Social System, Chuo Gakuin University. Please refer to the following website.　(https://www.cgu.ac.jp/socialsystem/kyoukaitiiki/)
[13] Japan International Border Studies Network (JIBSN)　(http://borderlands.or.jp/jibsn/)
[14] Japan Center for Border Studies (JCBS)　(http://www.borderlands.or.jp/)
[15] Japan Border Tourism Association (JBTA)　(https://www.border-tourism.com/)

Fuminori Kawakubo／Vice-President and Faculty of Law Professor of Chuo Gakuin University
Area of Specialization: Border Studies

Fuminori Kawakubo was born in Minamisoma City, Fukushima Prefecture in 1973. In 1996, he graduated from the Department of Political Science in the Faculty of Law, Chuo University. In 1998, he completed the Master’s Program in political science in the Graduate School of Law, Chuo University. In 2005, he obtained an M.A. in sociology from the State University of New York at Binghamton. In 2007, he completed the Doctoral Program in political science in the Graduate School of Law, Chuo University. He holds a Ph.D. in political science from Chuo University. After working as a Full-Time Lecturer and Associate Professor in the Faculty of Law, Chuo Gakuin University, he assumed his current position of Vice-President and Professor in the Faculty of Law.

His current research themes include the politics surrounding the United States border wall and Japan’s borderland development policies.

His major research works include Kokkyo sangyo fukugotai—America to “Kokkyo no kabe”wo meguru border studies (Border Studies Perspectives on the US Border Wall as an Aspect of the Border-Industial Complex) (sole author, Seidosha, 2023) and the article “Privatizing Border Security: Emergence of the ‘Border-Industrial Complex’ and Its Implications,” Public Voices, Vol. XVII, No. 1, 2020, as well as “The Encyclopedia of New Geopolitics” (a member of the editorial committee and writer of articles, Maruzen Publishing, 2020), co-translation of “Anzen hoshoka” towa nanika –Kyoi wo meguru seijirikigaku (Security: A New Framework for Analysis) written by Barry Buzan et al. (Minerva Shobo, 2024), sole translation of Kyokai kara sekai wo miru- bo-da- studies nyumon (Borders: A Very Short Introduction) written by Alexander C. Diener et al. (Iwanami Shoten, 2015), and more.

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